Abstract

In higher education, instructors play a pivotal role in shaping and sustaining learners’ motivation and engagement throughout the learning process. Scholars of classroom learning environments have emphasized the importance of interpersonal relationships between teachers and students in achieving desirable educational outcomes. A positive and supportive teacher–student relationship serves as one of the essential prerequisites for meaningful student participation and engagement in learning activities (Barklemans et al., 2000). Previous research has demonstrated that students’ perceptions of their teachers’ interpersonal behavior significantly affect their learning motivation, classroom engagement, and academic achievement (Brook, 2001). These perceptions also play a vital role in shaping learners’ attitudes toward learning (Brook et al., 2005; Gupta & Fisher, 2011) and their intrinsic motivation (Molana et al., 2013). Most prior studies have employed the Questionnaire on Teacher Interaction (QTI) across different educational levels, including primary, secondary, and higher education (Gupta & Fisher, 2011; Fraser et al., 2010).
Recent findings underscore the centrality of supportive teacher behaviors in enhancing student motivation and engagement. For instance, Tian and Shen (2023) found that supportive teacher behaviors significantly improved students’ motivation and participation. Similarly, Makarova (2021) reported that respectful and empathetic teacher attitudes in Russian universities not only reduced learners’ stress levels but also strengthened their learning motivation. These findings collectively highlight the indispensable role of interpersonal behaviors in fostering positive learning climates within higher education.
Interpersonal teacher behaviors typically fall along a continuum between supportive and controlling orientations. According to Self-Determination Theory (SDT) (Deci & Ryan, 2000), autonomy-supportive teachers enhance learners’ motivation by listening actively, acknowledging students’ perspectives and emotions, providing meaningful explanations, and offering opportunities for choice and initiative (Reeve & Jang, 2006). Conversely, controlling teachers assume full responsibility for the learning process, manage instructional materials rigidly, and often rely on pressure, threats, or criticism to guide students toward correct responses (Assor et al., 2005).
In the context of foreign language learning, motivation is widely recognized as a primary determinant of success. As Dörnyei (2009) contends, motivation serves as the driving force that initiates and sustains language learning, and without it, even highly gifted learners may fail to achieve proficiency. Similarly, Turner (1995) associates motivation with cognitive engagement and the application of advanced self-regulatory strategies.
Despite abundant research linking teacher support and classroom interaction with reduced anxiety and increased motivation, few studies have explored these relationships in English language education, particularly across teacher-centered and student-centered environments at the tertiary level. Therefore, the present study aimed to examine the impact of English teachers’ interpersonal behaviors on students’ learning motivation in teacher-centered and student-centered classrooms at universities in Mazandaran Province, Iran, to illuminate the role of instructors and learning contexts in shaping motivation.
Methodology
This descriptive-analytical study employed a survey design involving 225 undergraduate students from multiple universities in northern Iran, selected through convenience sampling. Data were collected using two validated instruments: (1) the Questionnaire on Teacher Interaction (QTI), which measures students’ perceptions of teachers’ interpersonal behavior across two dimensions—Influence (control/leadership) and Proximity (cooperation/empathy); and (2) the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (IMI), which assesses learners’ interest/enjoyment, perceived competence, felt pressure/tension, and value/usefulness.
Eight English classes, taught by eight instructors across four universities, were observed and categorized as teacher-centered or student-centered based on specific behavioral and pedagogical indicators. Teacher-centered classrooms were characterized by lecture-based delivery, limited student participation, and teacher-controlled activities. Student-centered classrooms, in contrast, encouraged learner autonomy, dialogue, peer interaction, and shared decision-making.
Data analysis was conducted using SPSS. Descriptive statistics (mean, SD, frequency) were followed by MANOVA and MANCOVA to examine differences and relationships among interpersonal behavior dimensions and motivation subcomponents across the two classroom types.
Findings
The results revealed that students in both classroom types perceived their instructors as generally competent and influential, though student-centered teachers received slightly higher ratings on both Influence and Proximity. Specifically, the mean score for Influence in student-centered classes was 0.89 (SD = 0.38), compared to 0.74 (SD = 0.36) in teacher-centered classes, showing a significant difference (F = 67.78, p < .001). However, no significant difference was found for Proximity (F = 1.75, p = .18), indicating comparable levels of perceived cooperation across contexts.
Regarding motivation, student-centered learners scored higher in Interest/Enjoyment and Value/Usefulness, and reported lower Felt Pressure/Tension, suggesting that these environments fostered more positive emotional experiences and lower anxiety. The difference in Perceived Competence was not significant, implying similar self-efficacy levels across both environments.
Regression analyses indicated that both Influence and Proximity dimensions significantly predicted the four subcomponents of intrinsic motivation, with Proximity showing stronger effects across all motivational outcomes. Interaction effects (SC × Influence; SC × Proximity) revealed that the relationship between interpersonal behavior and motivation was stronger in student-centered contexts, particularly in enhancing perceived value and enjoyment.
Discussion
The findings confirm that interpersonal behaviors, especially those reflecting closeness, empathy, and respect, are crucial determinants of students’ intrinsic motivation. The slightly higher perception of Influence and Proximity in student-centered classes indicates that empowering students to participate and collaborate not only sustains engagement but also deepens their sense of belonging and emotional connection to learning.
Consistent with Self-Determination Theory, autonomy-supportive teaching—manifested through listening, positive feedback, and meaningful dialogue—enhances students’ intrinsic motivation, cognitive engagement, and overall classroom satisfaction. Conversely, controlling behaviors may undermine autonomy, increase anxiety, and limit deep learning.
Moreover, this study underscores the importance of balancing authority with empathy in higher education. Effective teachers maintain academic rigor and clear structure while cultivating trust, openness, and mutual respect. Such balance transforms classrooms into emotionally secure and intellectually stimulating environments where learning becomes a collaborative, meaningful experience.
The study also contributes to the growing literature on teacher–student relationships in EFL contexts, where cultural norms often favor teacher-centered instruction. By empirically demonstrating that student-centered environments yield higher motivation and lower tension without compromising perceived competence, the findings support pedagogical reform toward learner-centered teaching in Iranian higher education.In sum, the study reveals that teachers’ interpersonal behaviors significantly affect university students’ intrinsic motivation in learning English. Student-centered classrooms, characterized by empathy, autonomy support, and collaborative interaction, foster stronger intrinsic motivation, greater enjoyment, and reduced stress compared to traditional teacher-centered settings.
The results highlight the need for professional development programs that train EFL instructors to adopt autonomy-supportive and empathy-based approaches. Encouraging teachers to function as facilitators rather than knowledge transmitters can enhance not only students’ motivation but also the overall quality of learning in higher education.
Future research could extend these findings by employing longitudinal or mixed-method designs to explore how interpersonal behaviors evolve over time and how cultural, institutional, or individual factors moderate their impact.