Abstract

Dyslexia, recognized as the most prevalent specific learning disability, is defined by persistent challenges in reading accuracy, fluency, spelling, and word decoding, despite normal intelligence, intact sensory abilities, and sufficient educational opportunities (Shaywitz & Shaywitz, 2020; Snowling & Hulme, 2025). This neurobiological disorder involves distinct brain processing patterns; neuroimaging research consistently demonstrates structural and functional differences, particularly in left-hemisphere language areas such as the temporal and parietal regions (Ozernov-Palchik & Gaab, 2016; Mather & Wendling, 2024). Genetic contributions are substantial, with studies identifying chromosomal anomalies and over 330 differentially expressed genes associated with neuronal migration and synaptic transmission (Erbeli et al., 2022; Scandura et al., 2025; Chapman et al., 2025). While environmental factors, including instructional quality and early oral language exposure, can modulate symptom severity, they do not constitute the primary etiology (Hettiarachchi, 2021; Snowling & Hulme, 2025). Contemporary models frame dyslexia as a multifactorial condition resulting from intricate gene-environment interactions, cognitive heterogeneity, and potential comorbidities involving working memory, rapid naming, and motor coordination (Werth, 2024; Vlachos & Chalmpe, 2025).

Global prevalence estimates for dyslexia in school-aged children range from 5% to 17%, with a meta-analysis indicating approximately 6% in Iran (Yin et al., 2020; Solheim et al., 2024; Sakhai et al., 2025). The disorder extends beyond core academic deficits in phonological awareness, rapid automatized naming, decoding, reading fluency, and comprehension (Hulme & Snowling, 2016; Abdollahzadeh Rafi & Rahimzadeh, 2021). It frequently co-occurs with profound socio-emotional challenges, including elevated anxiety, depression, behavioral difficulties, diminished resilience, and lower self-esteem, with reviews suggesting that around 70% of students with learning disabilities experience greater anxiety than peers (Feng et al., 2024; Vieira et al., 2024; Beaudoin et al., 2024).

Intervention research highlights the efficacy of evidence-based approaches, such as structured literacy programs emphasizing systematic phonics instruction (Galuschka et al., 2020; Chandler et al., 2025). In contrast, popular but unsubstantiated methods—including sensory integration therapies, colored overlays/lenses, vision therapy, and pharmacological treatments—lack empirical support and may exacerbate frustration while consuming valuable resources (Handler & Fierson, 2011; Wadlington & Wadlington, 2005; Soriano-Ferrer et al., 2016).

Elementary school teachers are pivotal in the early detection process, often being the first professionals to notice reading struggles in classroom settings and facilitate timely referrals (Sanfilippo et al., 2020). Nevertheless, persistent misconceptions among educators—such as viewing dyslexia as limited to English speakers, attributable to visual deficits or letter reversals, indicative of low intelligence, fully curable over time, non-heritable, non-chronic, responsive to medication or eye-tracking exercises, or rendering accommodations (e.g., extended time or reduced spelling demands) unfair—can delay identification, promote ineffective teaching strategies, and contribute to emotional harm for affected students (Mather et al., 2020; Mather & Wendling, 2024; Makgato et al., 2022). International surveys reveal considerable variation in teacher knowledge: generally lower in contexts like China (Yin et al., 2020) and higher in Norway (Solheim et al., 2024), with a recurring trend of stronger grasp on observable behavioral symptoms versus weaker comprehension of etiological and neurobiological foundations.

In the Iranian context, an earlier investigation documented suboptimal teacher awareness regarding learning disabilities overall (Abdi et al., 2010). Structural shifts in teacher recruitment—including hiring from unrelated disciplines and constrained specialized training in programs like those at Farhangian University—necessitated a contemporary reassessment.

This descriptive cross-sectional study thus aimed to evaluate dyslexia knowledge among Iranian elementary teachers and explore demographic influences. A sample of 152 elementary teachers was recruited from five provinces (Hamadan, Arak, Razavi Khorasan, Kermanshah, and Khuzestan) using convenience and snowball sampling methods. These non-probabilistic techniques were selected due to logistical challenges, including geographic dispersion and the lack of a centralized national teacher database; however, they inherently limit the generalizability of findings to broader populations.

The primary instrument was the Dyslexia Awareness Questionnaire developed by Yin et al. (2020), comprising 29 true/false/"don't know" items organized into three subscales: General Information (14 items assessing etiology, epidemiology, and consequences), Symptoms/Identification (7 items focusing on clinical signs and diagnostic indicators), and Treatment/Intervention (8 items evaluating evidence-based practices). The Persian adaptation involved forward-backward translation procedures, followed by expert review for face and content validity. Reliability in the current sample was robust, with Cronbach's alpha of 0.85 for the total scale and subscale values ranging from 0.72 to 0.75. Data collection occurred online over a one-month period, ensuring anonymity and voluntary participation. Statistical analyses employed SPSS-27, including independent t-tests and one-way ANOVA to examine demographic effects.

Results indicated a mean total knowledge score of 19.37 out of 29 (equivalent to 66.8% correct responses). Subscale performance varied markedly: highest on Symptoms/Identification (78.6% correct), moderate on Treatment/Intervention (69.8%), and lowest on General Information (59.2%). Notable strengths encompassed universal recognition that dyslexia is not exclusive to English (100% correct), strong endorsement of structured, sequential instruction (94.1%), and high accuracy in identifying core symptoms such as decoding difficulties (88.2%), spelling issues (86.2%), fluency problems (80.9%), and phonological awareness deficits (82.9%). Conversely, pronounced gaps emerged in foundational knowledge: only 5.9% correctly identified dyslexia as non-outgrowable, 22.4% acknowledged heritability, 29.6% recognized associated brain differences, 27% understood medication ineffectiveness, and 19.1% rejected eye-tracking exercises. Additional misconceptions included the gender myth (54.6% incorrectly believing higher prevalence in boys) and perceptions of accommodations as unfair (only 13.8% viewing them as equitable). Demographic analyses revealed a small but significant gender advantage for females (p=0.036), with no meaningful differences attributable to educational degree or recruitment pathway.

These findings resonate with established international patterns. Overall knowledge exceeded levels reported among Chinese teachers (53.9%; Yin et al., 2020) yet fell short of those in Norway and Lebanon (Solheim et al., 2024; Farran et al., 2023). Strengths in practical symptom recognition parallel observations by Alexiou et al. (2014) and Laguillo-Rebolledo et al. (2023), while deficits in etiology and chronicity mirror Yin et al. (2020). Misconceptions regarding ineffective interventions align with Farran et al. (2023), Ramli et al. (2019), and Clemens & Vaughn (2023); negative attitudes toward accommodations echo Papadopoulou (2015); and the modest gender effect is consistent with Thakuri & Subedi (2024).

Within the boundaries of this study's sample and methodology, participating Iranian elementary teachers exhibited moderate dyslexia knowledge, characterized by reliable practical insights but compromised by substantial gaps in scientific foundations, evidence-based intervention awareness, and supportive attitudes—factors that could impede early identification and inclusive practices. Practical recommendations encompass integrating dedicated dyslexia modules into pre-service teacher education curricula and delivering targeted in-service professional development to address myths and enhance supportive dispositions. The chief methodological limitation lies in the non-probabilistic sampling approach, which constrains broader generalizations; subsequent investigations should prioritize random sampling strategies, longitudinal designs to evaluate training efficacy, and explorations of urban-rural or experiential influences.